Authors in Islamic countries "published" their works by reading them aloud, or dictating from memory, in front of an audience. The dictated composition would be transcribed by one or more copyists and, in order to ensure the accuracy of the transcription, would be read back to the author. A reliable transcription secured the author's permission (ijazah) to transmit a work to others in the same manner. Booksellers themselves were often copyists, who would prepare copies to order or provide copies made by others for sale. After its introduction from China, paper began to be made in the Islamic empire as early as 800 A.D., and by the middle of the 10th century it had replaced papyrus. The preferred writing instrument was the reed pen. Paper was prepared for writing first by applying a sizing material and then burnishing the surface. Decoration of the text, whether in the form of simple rubrications, diagrams, or elaborate illuminations, was added after the text had been copied. Finally, the book was bound. Although printing made its appearance in Europe in the mid-15th century, printed books were banned for religious reasons in Muslim lands until 1712. In that year the Ottoman sultan issued a firman making it legal to print books on all subjects except Islam. Even then the use of printing did not become widespread and books continued to be reproduced in manuscript form well into the 20th century. Books on Islam and copies of the Qur'an did not begin to be printed in Islamic countries until the first years of the 19th century. The Islamic manuscript tradition therefore lasted a great deal longer than it did in European countries, explaining the relatively recent dates of most the Islamic manuscripts included in this exhibit.